Chapter IV, Part 2
14.
Though most conventional ‘grammars’ of English have not properly
acknowledged it, the Prosody of Tone Groups interacts richly with the Grammar of Clauses to
determine Clause Types.12 The four Major Clause Types, traditionally mislabelled ‘sentences’ (IV.64), each have a formal term and
a functional term: the Declarative for Statements, the Interrogative for
Questions, the Exclamatory for Exclamations, and the Imperative for Commands.13
These pairs of terms are not just synonyms; the forms have these functions only
as their unmarked options. The Declarative form also serves the functions of
Question, Exclamation, or Command, though typically with special effects
(III.90; IV.32, 46, 58).
IV.C.1
The Declarative Clause Type for Statements
15.
The Declarative Clause, used mainly for Statements conveying
moderate Certainty, is unmistakably dominant. In the Grammar, its
unmarked options include Subject + Verb + Object [955]; Subject + Verb +
Adverbial [956]; and Subject + Verb + Subject Complement [957]. Relatively
infrequent, though unmarked in itself, is Subject + Verb + Object + Object
Complement, as in [958].
[955] the Banker endorsed
a blank check (Snark)
[956] the principal
failing occurred in the sailing (Snark)
[957] their Captain
looked grand (Snark)
[958] Mrs
Guest’s wardrobe plan has made her
a best dressed icon. (Harpers & Queen)
For the Prosody, the unmarked option is naturally a falling Pitch contour, beginning at high Pitch on the first Stress near the Front and leading toward a Strong Stress at low Pitch near the end of the Tone Group — the strategy of End Weight [959-60]. More marked is Mid Weight with a contour rising up to a Certain Strong Stress on a focused part of the Statement, e.g., ‘voice heard’ in [961] or ‘stones’ in [962]; the rest of the Tone Group picks a falling contour. As seen in IV.12, other Stresses make the Pitch level fit their sites, the earlier ones being higher, e.g. in [959]. The distinctions between stressed and unstressed, and between Weak and Strong Stress, are thus supported by Volume and Pace. In solemn discourse like the Holy Bible, Stresses are carefully measured, even for the opening Syllables of a Tone Group. For visual clarity I show the Pitch contours in double-line arrows, the Strong Stresses in thicker single-line arrows, and the Weak Stresses in thinner single-line arrows.
16.
Several motives can favour End Weight. One relates to Cohesion: signaling the
upcoming boundary of a prosodic unit like a Tone Group and often a grammat-ical
unit like a Clause too [960]. A Strong Stress at End Weight functions like the
period of the written Sentence, though more agile. In return, Strong Stress can
go on unimportant Items that in other positions would not merit it, as in
[963-65].
[963]
I reckon he was glad to die when he !did.
(Posthumous Papers)
[964] ‘No, St. John, we are not friends
as we !were.’ (Eyre)
[965] The defence in general is 200%
better than at the start of the !year. (Leeds United)
17.
Another Motive relates to Informativity. A natural strategy for arranging the
Declarative Clause gives End Weight and Strong Stress to what is new or unpredic-table,
e.g. the first ‘horse’ in [966] and the ‘hand’ and ‘voice’ in [966];
and to use the Front with Weak Stress for what is already mentioned, like the
second ‘horse’ in [966], or predictable, like the ‘face’ for the owner
of the ‘hand’ and ‘voice’ [967]. This common strategy was described in
‘functional sentence perspective’ as the unmarked option of ‘communicative
dynamism’, which applies far more consistently in a language like Czech than
in English (II.107).14
As a corollary, the
[966] Beneath was a high-colored poster of a girl on a !horse. The ¡horse was standing on its hind feet (Lazy A)
[967] she
felt a light !hand
on her shoulder, and heard a !voice
close to her saying, `Maggie!’ The
¡face was there — changed, but all the sweeter (Floss)
Subject
of the English Clause seems less important than the Predicate (cf. IV.85).
18.
End Weight may be overridden to emphasise a contrast, even for otherwise
unimportant Items, such as a Pronoun like ‘you’ versus ‘I’ in [968], an
Auxiliary like ‘wouldn’t’ versus ‘would’ in [969], or a Preposition
like ‘under’ versus ‘above’ in [970]. Also, Items in End position which
got Strong Stress before are prone to get Weak Stress, like ‘God’,
‘waters’, and ‘firmament’ in [970].
[968] I
know what I’m talking about; and !you’ll know
pretty soon, too! (Willows)
[969]
‘What would he !do?’ said the girl, looking, with
breathless interest, into her face. ‘What !would·n’t he do, you’d better ask’, said Cassy. (Cabin)
[970] !God moved upon the face of the !wat·ers […] ‘Let there be a !firm·a·ment in the midst of the ¡wat·ers, and let it di·!vide the ¡wat·ers from the ¡wat·ers.’ And ¡God !made the ¡firm·a·ment, and di·¡vid·ed the ¡wat·ers which were !un·der the ¡firm·a·ment from the ¡wat·ers which were a·!bove the ¡firm·a·ment. (Genesis 1:2, 6-7)
19. Contrast also uses ‘alternative Pitch’, where the prosodic contours rise, the fall; the contrasting alternatives are linked by ‘or’ [971] or, less readily, ‘but’ [972]. Each Conjunction rises up to the Stress that starts off the falling Pitch
In the first Pitch contour, the Strong Stress for End
Weight carries rising Uncertain Stress and in the second carries falling Certain
Stress. The uncertainty reflects the indecision between the two alternatives.
20.
A decisively marked option for the Statement is Front Weight, with a
Strong Stress at high Pitch to start a falling Pitch contour, placed on an Item
near the Front of a Clause where it wouldn’t normally go, e.g., an Object as
Noun [973] or Pronoun [974], or a Modifier for a Subject Complement [975], or a
Past Participle for a Passive [976]; the End of the Clause may in turn get only
Weak Stress, as shown here. Probably too, Volume gets louder and the Pace is
slowed or paused to set off the Fronted Item, especially if two Pronouns go side
by side [974]. Still, End Weight can apply as well when another Strong Stress
fits near the End [977-78]; even so, Front Weight keeps the focus of the
Utterance (cf. IV.44).
[973] Such mortal !drugs I ¡have; but Mantua’s law is death to any he that utters them. (Romeo)
[974] !Me she had not ¡seen
(Zenda)
[975]
Tiger looked about him for signs. !Few they ¡were. (Voice
of the City)
[976] She meant to be obeyed — and o·!beyed she ¡was. (Professor)
[977]
Such a !braz·en !dog sure never my eyes be·!held. (Stoops)
[978]
En·!vi·roned
he was with many !foes (Henry VI)
21.
A curious interaction between the Grammar and Prosody of English occurs in the Tag,
a maximally short and simple Tone Group whose function suits the Clause Type
being ‘tagged’. The common Look-Back Tag comes just after the end of
the Clause to reaffirm or modify the function, whereas the uncommon Look-Ahead
Tag comes before to anticipate. Most Tags are Colligations of a Pronoun
Subject with a Pro-Verb like ‘be’ or ‘do’, one of the two items taking
Weak Stress; the minimal Informativity of content indicates almost ‘pure
function’.
22.
In the Look-Back Tag Statement, these two Pro-Forms
reaffirm whilst looking back to Subject and Verb Phrase of the Clause Core; the
Pronoun gets Weak Stress (or Strong Stress for extra emphasis), and the Pro-Verb
‘be’ or ‘do’ is Unstressed. In the Clause being ‘tagged’, a Strong
Stress can give End Weight.
[979]
I went to the Classical master, though. He was an old !crab,
| ¡he was. (Alice)
[980]
You’re really !mor·bid,
| ¡you are. (Jubilee
Wood)
[981]
They liked a bit o’ !fun,
| ¡they did. (Treasure)
[982] You admired him from
your heart only this !morn·ing,
| ¡you did. (Madding)
A short version in casual or regional spoken
English has just a Look-Back Pro-noun Tag, again occupying its own Tone
Group and taking Weak Stress; this looks back to the Subject which can be highlighted as the
Agent or Medium [985-88].
[983]
I’m not one for com!puters,
| ¡me. Me eldest’s got one but I never could get
used to it. (prose)BNC
[984]
You couldn’t beat a fucking !carpet,
| ¡you. (Payback)
[985]
it’s a wonder he ain’t fat as a !pig,
| ¡him. He never stops (conversation)BNC
[986] Oh my God! this’ll
mean trouble. They’re a rough !lot,
| ¡them. (Wingless Bird)
23. As a converse option, the Look-Ahead Pronoun Tag functions to announce some Topic and to look ahead to the Pronoun Subject inside the Clause. This Tag is likely to merit Strong Stress in its own Tone Group, whilst the following Pronoun Subject takes Weak Stress; and a Pause separates the two Pronouns.
[987] These people
can take many blows, but !I,
| ¡I am fragile as a butterfly. (Harpers)
[988] my neighbours are barbarians, and !you,
|
¡you are a
thousand miles
away (Magus)
[989] However conspicuous the outward achievement, !he, | ¡he himself, Magnus Der-rick, had failed, (Octopus)
[990] Jay was blessed with that summer
and the sunshine of Astrid’s love. But !she,
| ¡she shed her loves in autumn like the trees. (Jay
Loves Lucy)
This
Pattern is distinct from one where a Pronoun with Strong Stress is the Subject
rather than a Tag, and is followed by a Noun or Noun Phrase Appositive with
another Strong Stress, to contrast one identity with someone else’s [991-92].
[991]
Farfrae would be suggesting such improvements in his damned luminous way
that in spite of
himself, !he,
|
!Hench·ard,
|
would sink
to the
position of
second fiddle
(Mayor)
[992] Hannah had never had a chance; [whereas] !she, | !Re·becca, | had enjoyed all the privileges (Sunnybrook)
24.
The Look-Back Noun Tag places a Pronoun in the Subject of the Clause and
looks back to it in the Tag with a Noun or Noun Phrase as the Subject of the
Pro-Verb. Since Identity is already anticipated, the Noun deserves Weak Stress.
[993] He
changed his name by deed poll,
| the
¡fath·er
did. (Ulysses)
[994] Yes, she
looked very nice,
| Jo·¡an·na
did. (Firs)
[995] He had
a large circle of relations,
| ¡that ¡man had. (House of Dreams)
[996] She’s pretty patient,
| Ma·¡rie
is. (Bayswater)
A
regional variation places the Pro-Verb of the Tag ahead of its Subject:
[997]
He’s as strong as a moor pony,
| is ¡Dick·on. (Secret Garden)
[998]
He was perfectly sober,
| was the ¡Ad·mir·al. (Jungle)
[999] Mind, he was rather a wild card, | was ¡Gran·da, | rather too fond of strong drink. (Seasons of My Life)
[1000] He hates cold kipper,
| does
¡Bid·well. (Expert Witness)
And
a short version merely supplies the Noun Phrase, usually with Weak Stress:
[1001] They
think I’m blimming Mary Poppins,
| ¡that ¡lot.
(Lucker)
[1002]
‘She’s left her hair loose,
| the
¡lit·tle
¡tart’,
said Perdita contemptuously (Polo)
25.
The Grammar of the Declarative as the dominant Major Clause Type has had many
studies, whereas the contours of Prosody for the function of Statement has had
only a few, and Statement Tags almost none.15 These disparities may
reflect the inclinations of linguists and grammarians to favour ‘formal’
written English, where the role of Prosody superficially seems unimportant (cf.
IV.4).
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IV, Part 3